BLOG POST 4: COMMON SHOCKS AND STRESSES IN THARAKA

BLOG POST 4: COMMON SHOCKS AND STRESSES IN THARAKA

 This blog post identifies the common shocks, stresses and disasters in Tharaka. It identifies the current and recent ones. Both natural and human-made shocks and stresses are identified. The blog post pursues the following specific questions: Which are the different shocks and stresses? Which categories of people, households or groups are affected most by shocks and stresses? How are men, women, boys, girls, and institutions affected by shocks and stresses in the study area?

In this discourse, shocks and stresses are understood as effects caused by natural and/or man-made factors, and often by a combination of the two. These effects, may themselves or in combination with other effects cause further effects within the household and local community. In this way, certain shocks and stresses become both effects and causes. Some of the shocks and stresses have longer and larger impact than others. Some are sudden in both their occurrence and effects, while others takes a much longer time to occur or their effects linger for a much longer period. Some of the shocks and stresses affect many people and households, while others are localized in geographical scope, scale and intensity.  

Beyond the general environmental and human-made classification, shocks and stresses experienced in Tharaka can be grouped further into four categories:  environmental, socio-cultural, economic and institutional. This classification is based on the sources and nature of the effects of a given shock or stress. These shocks are described below. 

 

Droughts

Most shocks and stresses are climate induced with the main one being drought. Inadequate rain or lack of it leads to food shortage and outbreak of diseases and ailments, and death among people and animals. A community that depends solely on rain-fed agriculture like Tharaka is vulnerable to food insecurity.

Drought which is more pronounced in lower zones (marginal areas) with the most affected being Kaguma-Kamanyaki area in Tharaka South and Maragwa–Kamwathu-Kathangachini-Kamacaabi area in Tharaka North. These areas have harsh environment with hot and dry climate, and becomes worse in dry periods of August - October. The upper zones (rain-fed) are Nkondi, Njukini, Kibung’a, Karocho, Ruungu, Tunyai, Kithino and Ntendera-Nguuru in Tharaka South, and Mukothima and Gitithini in North Tharaka.

Following the Kenya Food Security Group (KFSG) recent assessment of food situation, Gatunga received the lowest rainfall followed by Marimanti, Chiakariga and Mukothima in that ranking order of wards. Nkondi received most rainfall. October – December rains are the most reliable in Tharaka and people depend on them for harvest even though they are short rains.

Drought in Tharaka has a cycle of 3 years although nowadays days it has become annual as several seasons follow each other with little or no rain. The most famous droughts in Tharaka that caused massive suffering were list as follows:

·         Kaara migogo (1760-1800s)

·         Gata Ndugu/Gata nthoni  (1820s-1830s)

·         Jiura ria mpempe (1930s)

·         Kagojia  (1928-1933)

·         Mukunja (1976)- food shortage and livestock pastures

·         Ngakuengwete (1980) which literally means, “I will die when I am holding”.

·         Kithukio (1984) - food shortage with plenty of meet, and outbreak of cholera

·         1987 - mostly affected mostly livestock 

·         1990 - food shortage

·         Gacomora (1992) - food shortage and livestock loss

Droughts that affected livestock occurred in 1984, 2013 and 2017 according statistics. Ngaakua ngwete of 1980 affected both livestock and people severely unlike other droughts.

There were several droughts from 1984 onwards, which did not have names but were less in severe.  Notable drought years were 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006-2007, 2010-2011, 2017. Kiaramuu (as it was called by Meru people) or Gituri (as it was called in Tharaka) was another serious drought but no year was given of its occurrence. In Tharaka the drought was nicknamed Gituri because people used to go to Kitui to beg and obtained black beans. 

Drought is increasingly becoming recurrent due to climate change, which is causing much suffering to people and livestock. For instance, before the rains of the season Kathita merely dried up due continuous periods of drought. According to NDMA, there are 4 phases of drought, which are: normal, alert, alarm and emergency. Tharaka has suffered from drought but never reached emergency but alarm stage.

Major droughts in Tharaka often have far reaching effects on Tharaka people such as dispersal migration (from food deficient areas to where there was food), depopulation due to death and migration of people, culture erosion due to death (leading to loss of oral information which could not be passed over to next generation); theyalso caused moral erosion and enmity of relative and friends due scarcity--- due to scarcity people evaded each other.

Water scarcity

Water shortageaffects most households in both counties. The distance to the nearest source of water is big for majority of households. This is despite the fact that there are 13 permanent rivers, which pass through Tharaka. The stress is most severe during droughts.

                                                                                                            

Pests and diseases

These affect most of the farms in Tharaka irrespective of where they are located. Pests and diseases have become resistance to drugs and agrochemicals. Last season was the most affected due floods. A government key informant underlined this stress in the following manner: “Last season people used to spray their crops weekly but all in vain”.

Pests and diseases have developed resistance due use of wrong chemicals or wrong application as senior agricultural officials in Tharaka South subcounty says, “They buy drugs over the counter without seeking expert advice. Agro vets can sell any drug even if they know it will not be effective.” Drugs wrongly used both in plants animals have residual effect in human body as emphasized by agriculture and animals disease experts in Tharaka South Sub-county.

Common diseases affecting crops included pests (mbaa) which affected cowpeas and millet… Extension service is no longer available to the community because it is demand driven.

The most common and destructive pests (locally called ‘mbaa’ and ‘ruginyo’. There are also the foul army worms and pod borers with the former being more destructive and unpredictable. The normal army worm was controlled with chemicals but nowadays is the foul army worm is the threat to crops as it feeds on anything. It tends to hide itself in the soil during the day and comes out at night. Foul armyworm came to the country from South America and have a tendency to spread very fast. Chemicals are not working to control this type of armyworms. During the last season the population of foul arm worms increased unlike in October - December 2017 rains. In the last season, there was also an increase in pod borers, which fed on green grams, cowpeas and pigeon peas. There was also an outbreak of fungal diseases that affected cowpeas and green grams. Quela birds are also normally a threat a threat to crops. They came twice to Tharaka from Mwea where they feed on rice and wheat. They move in big numbers and when they invade an area, they cause great destruction to crops; this is as observed by an agricultural expert in Tharaka South Sub-county.

The common diseases affecting livestock included LSD, which has been in Tharaka for the last 4 years. This affects only cattle. Sheep and goats are affected by sheep and goat pox. Both diseases have never been vaccinated because veterinary department did not have vaccines. There is no extension service as livestock department only deals with disease surveillance and reporting.

There used to be outbreak of animals diseases such as mungu’ru (skin diseases), maromo (affecting goats), kuu (affecting goats and cattle feet), “madness” in livestock, nkubanangumba (big and small ticks), mutune (killed goats and sheep), worms and kamocu (in livestock and people).

Farmers buy drugs from the Agrovet, which might wrong ones to treat these conditions making them resistance. New Castle Disease is common but affects chicken. Other disease includes tick borne diseases and worms. There is also rabbies because there are many infected dogs in Tharaka.  Other livestock diseases include sheep and goats pox, which is, still an issue in Tharaka because it has not been vaccinated. Airborne diseases include RV fever and VCD in chicken.

Human beings suffer from widespread diseases and ailments with major outbreaks being cholera and typhoid. The three most common diseases and ailments in Tharaka are malaria, typhoid fever and amoebiasis.Cholera lastly broke out in January 2018 and affected Nkondi (Tumbura area) and Chiakariga. Cholera occurs because of poor sanitation and hygiene practices. Key informants were of the view that in Tharaka, up to 40% of the people defecate in the open, and “people may boil water for drinking but not for washing utensils”.

Communicable diseases like cholera have become common and malnutrition among the under-five year old children.  Cholera has been recurring almost every 3 years (2001, 2005, 2009, 2007 and 2001). Typhoid is common and caused by feces … Acid is also becoming common as mentioned by an elder in Ntugi). Others include cancer (mentioned in Gakurungu, worms (tapeworms and hookworms) and labor flukes (Gakurungu).

An elder in Marimanti mentioned human diseases which used to cause anguish and suffering in Tharaka included kalazar (which was eliminated), pancreas, wound, scabies, chicken pox, malaria, spotted tongues, rice, flies, mpio (kiara), mutukia, mukunakiongo (meningitis), etc.

Major disease outbreaks in Tharaka

Malaria (hypo endemic), whole of Tharaka

Cholera (1984), whole of Tharaka

Cholera (2017), Gatithini in Tharaka North

 

Wildlife invasion

Wildlife invasion affects households living next or near Meru National Park in Tharaka North. Wild animals invade the farms and destroy crops and threaten the lives of people and livestock. Households who live near major hills and along rivers and valleys in Tharaka also face the menaced of money destroying their crops. Several animals are also found in Tharaka (hyenas, wild dogs, wolves, leopards, etc) which also attack and kill livestock. Compensation is never effected by KWS after a person is killed by wild animals. These wild animals also destroy crops and terraces on the farms. Animals mentioned by respondents included lion, elephant, pig, porcupine, antelope, deer, buffalo, elephants, warthog, birds, fox, among others.

 

Intra-community and inter-community conflict and violence

Conflicts and violence are shocks that affect people of Tharaka, at intra-household, inter-household and inter-community levels. The first two more common shocks and stresses among local households compared to the latter.

There are family disputes due to irresponsibility, greedy and family squabbles. Relationships have been affected because people do not practice traditional ways of enforcing punishment. Intra-community conflict is manifested in form of fights between spouses, fights between families members due to inheritance issues, fights within polygamous families due to land disputes and inheritance issues, and fights and hatred between neighboring households for example due to land disputes.

Inter-communal conflict, which mostly turns violent, is mainly between the Tharaka and neighboring communities. The border points of Tharaka and neighboring communities of Imenti, Tigania and Mwimbi, there are tribal frictions and major conflicts involving land boundaries. Areas occupied by Tharaka people such as Ruungu, Thiiti, Kibung’a/muuro wamuuguand Kauruni are claimed to belong to Meru County, which are occupied by Tharaka people. At the community and households levels, there are inter-household and inter-clan as well as domestic disputes. Conflicts arose naturally among communities because it was prestigious to fight between communities. Examples include the fight between Tharaka and Mbere, tribal wars affecting Tharaka and Tigania or gaaru that were not meant as sign of enmity but supremacy.

The inter-tribal conflict between Tharaka and neighboring communities within Njoguni area inNtoroni Location of Tharaka North in 1996/7 led to displacement of more than 1,000 households. Many of these IDPs integrated with local communities in Kanjoro, Ntoroni and Kathangachini locations of Tharaka North sib-county. Many others live as squatters in Ntoroni location. This land issue is unresolved. 

Banditry

Stealing of livestock, though a less frequent shock is experienced mostly in Tharaka North Sub-county. Boran and Somali herdsmen and tribesmen are alleged to pass through Meru National Park to invade and steal from communities bordering the park. This menace has affected the people of Kanjoro and Kathangachini locations in Tharaka North Sub-county for many years. Here people have lost lives, livestock and other assets. The menace has been contained but not completely eradicated.

High dependency levels

Tharaka community has high dependency syndrome, “not what can do for you but what can you do for me”. Tharaka people are said not to do not support project but let them collapse when the donor pulls out “e.g. boreholes dug by SIDA are regarded as SIDA water.” There is over dependence of the community with NGOs which they feel have a lot of money. “When the children are absorbed in the program their parents assumes that they are relieved every any other burden including the discipline. They walk away from their responsibilities. They want to be given everything for their parents including medical bills, basic need and any other need that the child may require”.  As and he continues, “they misuse the gifts and presents given to them. Most beneficiaries do not use what they are given for the purpose it was meant; they sometime divert a certain item for other uses a part from the ones intended.

 

Alcoholism

Beer making and beer drinking has been a tradition activity among the Tharaka, who are traditionally beekeepers. They have traditionally made beer from honey harvested from beehives owned by households, and from millet and sorghum (Marwa). There were muchlittle licensed bars and beer drinking in market centers and local townships as is evident today. Beer drinking was also restricted to older persons and shunned among the youths. Alcoholics were pruned upon and mocked in Tharaka traditional society. However, over the last two decades or so, alcoholism has become a menace in many parts of Tharaka, involving both older persons and youths. Some of the local people spend a big part of their time and household income on local brews and licensed alcohol. This affects household disposable income for meeting basic and other needs and to improve their general living conditions. Reduced productivity exposes them to food insecurity and desperation during time of droughts. Households with one or more members who are alcoholics are perpetually food insecure and vulnerable to other stresses.  In some instances, people even take Kathoroko early in the morning instead of food.

Under pricing or over-pricing of goods and services

Market exchanges, linkages and interactions are a major factor in understanding resilience capacities of the Tharaka people. This is particularly in relation to the market behavior and practices of local households and traders (largely cereals and livestock traders).  Local households obtain income (buy selling goods and services) and food (by purchasing from local shops and stores) from local markets. They do this from shopping centres and townships located in the two sub-counties. They use money, which they exchange with goods and services. In the older days before invention of money as a medium of exchange, people used to practice barter trade. Food is sold by use of tins, which are equivalent to certain measurements. There is a tin, which is equivalent to weight of one kilogram, which is used to sell various foods such as green grams, beans, pigeon peas and maize. According presentation by the KFSG, 148 Kgs of maize is equivalent to 1 goat. A goat sells at 3,800 to 4,000 shillings in the local market. Most of other foods (apart from cereals) come from Meru, which is rich agriculturally. Due to the urge to meet household needs, farmers sell their produce at throwaway prices soon after harvest leaving them vulnerable to food insecurity. During the market days farmers take their livestock to the market to sell. Livestock traded include goats, cattle, sheep and chicken. A few people own donkeys and domestic animals such as dogs and cats but these are never sold in the local market. Livestock fetch better prices than farm produce. Gatunga is the biggest market for livestock in the entire Tharaka, which attracts traders from within Tharaka and beyond. There is a tendency to sell more livestock during drought and restock after harvest. There is need for green grams to have good market.

Lack of essential services

A major observation is that school fees and health care are major expenses for many households in Tharaka. This concerns common illnesses such as malaria (the area is hypo endemic) and water borne diseases mostly typhoid and diarrhea. Although more public health facilities have been constructed, especially since the advent of devolution, many are not functional. The few government health facilities lack regular supply of drugs. As such, residents who seek services are re-directed to private health facilities or local chemists to purchase prescribed medicine. These are expensive for poor households who end up selling their assets to meet their medical bills. Over the last decade, many families have sought take support the education of their children, seeing this as one of the most satiable way out of poverty. As such, households spend a lot in education institutions in form of fees for their children. Many have also taken their children to private schools (academies) which have mushroomed in the area over the last decade. The well-off take their children to academies outside Tharaka. The fees charged are high for poor households and takes a large proportion of local household incomes.

 

Corruption and impunity

Ina normal day and in most of the spheres of life, most Tharaka will encounter one form of corruption in a one way or another. Hardly are public services among local pubic officers offered without some level of consideration for “chai”. Chai is a token that is expected from the one seeking services to the one providing services. These services would include advice or assistance for the local village elder, sub-chief, or chief; assistance when one faces a difficult such as being involved in a criminal act; when involved in petty offenses; and when seeking services such as recommendation letters, birth registration and land sales. The most depleting of these corruption costs is when those involving criminal acts in which both the accuser and accused persons must art with money at some point to government officials handling the case, as a form of (facilitation fee” to keep the case on course or to obtain “lesser punishment”. Land sale agreements, even when officiated by government officials must involve payment of “facilitation fees” to the officials, and neighbors who witness the deal. Overall, corruption is a major household expenditure item for many households in Tharaka.

Witchcraft

Belief in witchcraft is common in Marimanti, Karocho and Ntugi areas and people spend a lot time trying to make amends “they kill a goat and swear muuma. This is common in Ntugi area. People are envious of each other and when they visit the prophets they are told that their brothers are witching them, which has created hatred and dispute among families.

Family break-ups

These are common during drought seasons. Many men migrate to far places in search of jobs opportunities, leaving their wives and children. In times of long stay without seeing each other, some men may end up making another family in town or even the women ending up in relationship with the men left behind and especially those who are well of so that she may get help for the children.